Geography and Information About the State of Louisiana

Capital: Baton RougePopulation: 4,523,628 (2005 estimate prior to Hurricane Katrina)Largest Cities: New Orleans, Baton Rouge, Shreveport, Lafayette and Lake CharlesArea: 43,562 square miles (112,826 sq km)Highest Point: Mount Driskill at 535 feet (163 m)Lowest Point: New Orleans at -5 feet (-1.5 m)Louisiana is a state located in the southeastern portion of the United States between Texas and Mississippi and south of Arkansas. It features a distinct multicultural population that was influenced by French, Spanish and African peoples during the 18th century due to colonization and slavery. Louisiana was the 18th state to join the U.S. on April 30, 1812. Prior to its statehood, Louisiana was a former Spanish and French colony.Today, Louisiana is most known for its multicultural events such as Mardi Gras in New Orleans, its Cajun culture, as well as its economy based on fishing in the Gulf of Mexico. As such, Louisiana was severely impacted (like all Gulf of Mexico states) by a large oil spill off of its coast in April 2010. In addition, Louisiana is prone to natural disasters like hurricanes and flooding and has recently been hit by several large hurricanes in recent years. The largest of these was Hurricane Katrina which was a category three hurricane when it made landfall on August 29, 2005. 80% of New Orleans was flooded during Katrina and more than two million people were displaced in the region.The following is a list of important things to know about Louisiana, provided in an effort to educate readers about this fascinating U.S. state. Louisiana was first explored by Cabeza de Vaca in 1528 during a Spanish expedition. The French then began exploring the region in the 1600s and in 1682, Robert Cavelier de la Salle arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi River and claimed the area for France. He named the area Louisiana after the French king, King Louis XIV.Throughout the rest of the 1600s and into the 1700s, Louisiana was colonized by both the French and Spanish but it was dominated by the Spanish during this time. During Spains control of Louisiana, agriculture grew and New Orleans became a major trading port. In addition, during the early 1700s, Africans were brought to the region as slaves.In 1803, the U.S. took control of Louisiana after the Louisiana Purchase. In 1804 the land purchased by the U.S. was divided into a southern part called the Territory of Orleans which eventually became the state of Louisiana in 1812 when it was admitted into the union. After becoming a state, Louisiana continued being influence d by French and Spanish culture. This is shown today in the states multicultural nature and the various languages are spoken there.Today, unlike other states in the U.S., Louisiana is divided into parishes. These are local government divisions that are equivalent to counties in other states. Jefferson Parish is the largest parish-based on population while Cameron Parish is the largest by land area. Louisiana currently has 64 parishes.Louisianas topography consists of relatively flat lowlands located on the coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi Rivers alluvial plain. The highest point in Louisiana is along its border with Arkansas but it still below 1,000 feet (305 m). The main waterway in Louisiana is the Mississippi and the states coast is full of slow-moving bayous. Large lagoons and oxbow lakes, like Lake Ponchartrain, are also common in the state.Louisianas climate is considered humid subtropical and its coast is rainy. As a result, it contains many biodiverse marshes. Louisianas inland areas are drier and are dominated by low prairies and low rolling hills. Average temperatures vary based on location within the state and the northern regions are colder in the winters and hotter in the summers than those areas closer to the Gulf of Mexico.Louisianas economy is heavily dependent on its fertile soils and waters. Because much of the states land sits on rich alluvial deposits, it is the U.S.s largest producer of sweet potatoes, rice, and sugarcane. Soybeans, cotton, dairy products, strawberries, hay, pecans, and vegetables are also abundant in the state. In addition, Louisiana is well-known for its fishing industry that is dominated by shrimp, menhaden (mostly used to make fishmeal for poultry) and oysters.Tourism is also a large part of Louisianas economy. New Orleans is especially popular due to its history and the French Quarter. That location has many famous restaurants, architecture and is the home of the Mardi Gras festival which has be en held there since 1838.The population of Louisiana is dominated by Creole and Cajun peoples of French ancestry. Cajuns in Louisiana are descended from French colonists from Acadia in what were the present-day Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. Cajuns are mainly settled in southern Louisiana and as a result, French is a common language in the region. Creole is the name given to people born to French settlers in Louisiana when it was still a colony of France.Louisiana is home to some of the most famous universities in the U.S. Some of these include Tulane and Loyola Universities in New Orleans and the University of Louisiana in Lafayette. References Infoplease.com. (n.d.). Louisiana - Infoplease.com. Retrieved from: http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/us/A0830418.htmlState of Louisiana. (n.d.). Louisiana.gov - Explore. Retrieved from: http://www.louisiana.gov/Explore/About_Louisiana/Wikipedia. (2010, May 12). Louisiana - Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana

Analysis Of Jack Londons For Build A Fire And His Wise...

In Jack Londons’ â€Å"To Build A Fire,† a stubborn man with â€Å"no imagination† and his wise dog set out on the Yukon trail seeking out his camp in hopes to return and meet up with â€Å"the boys.† Being a â€Å"chechaquo,† a new comer to the land (Dictionary.com, 2015), this was his first Winter. â€Å"It was a clear day and yet there seemed an intangible pall over the face of things, a subtle gloom that made the day dark, and that was due to the absence of sun. The face did not worry the man.† (London, 629). The newcomer was entering Winter temperatures in which he knew nothing of, reaching seventy-five degrees below zero and would soon be in a battle of man verses nature. â€Å"But all this-the mysterious, far-reaching hair-line trail, the absence of sun from the sky, the tremendous cold, and the strangeness and weirdness of it all-made impression on the man.† (London, 629). As the man travels on through the freezing tempe ratures he is remind of advice from and old wise man, he had been warned of traveling alone and the dangers that could come with someone making such decisions. The traveler was hopeful of making it back to camp by six o’clock, and an hour into his travels he is ready to stop and eat his lunch with pride in his traveling progress. However, an hour into his travels the arrogant man was more concerned with chewing his tobacco, than thinking of potential dangers despite his warnings, so he stopped for lunch, never sharing with his only traveling companion, his loyal dog.

The Functional Areas Of An Organization Essay - 1132 Words

Departments in an organization perform functions or duties for the company, such as finance and accounting, marketing and sales, and production. Individual employees implement a functional role for the business within those departments. These employees are members of a team who work together to accomplish the goals of the corporation using their specific skill sets and talents. The functional areas or departments of a company may include human resources, sales, quality control, marketing, finance, accounting and production. (Chron.com, 2015). The Functional Areas to Include within an Organizational Team Each team should be made up of employees that carry a strong skill set as well as personal characteristics. These skill sets and characteristics will further the organization s goals. (n.d, 2014). For a cosmetic company to thrive it has to have these three major departments: Accounting and finance: Accounting and finance is responsible for accounting, auditing, planning, and organizing the company s finances, They are also responsible for producing the company s financial statements. Cash flow is the life source of any business. Without money, an organization cannot operate, therefore it is vital to maintain and manage the company s cash outflows as well as in flow. (r, 2012). Research and development: Innovation is the key to every organization s future. Through innovation, the company will open new opportunities and competitive advantages for the company.Show MoreRelatedFunctional Areas in a Business Organization Essay1975 Words   |  8 PagesFunctional Areas in Business Organisation In all industrial companies there are a number of key tasks or function that must be carried out regularly. Stock must be bought, the bills must be paid, the customers have to be served and the customer enquiries have to be dealt with. In a small organisation all the jobs may be done by one or two people occasionally, however in a large organisation people have to be specialised in many different individual tasks. A big company is usually easier to identifyRead MoreManagerial Roles Within the Functional Areas of a Business1026 Words   |  5 Pages ï » ¿Managerial Roles within Functional Areas of Business Adriana Tovar For a business to succeed there are lots of things and people required but among the most important people needed, the managers are the most essential and can make a difference between losing money and making profit. CieÅ›liÅ„ska describes a manager as â€Å"a person who fulfills the primordial managerial functions (planning, organizing, motivating and controlling) and is the superior of given human team† (2007). There are managersRead MoreWhat Types Of Skills Or Knowledge Should A Program Manager Consider When Selecting A Project Team Member?1568 Words   |  7 Pagesthey should be chosen based on the following skills: Technology skills: Members with specific technology skill sets depending on the nature of the project. Business/organization knowledge: It is also important to have people with domain knowledge; it can be within a specific domain or a big picture of the business of an organization so that they can augment the technical skill requirements. Interpersonal skills: Communicating with other team members and other stakeholders is a very important skillRead MoreMatrix Analysis : Matrix Management Essay1135 Words   |  5 Pagesthe traditional, ‘Vertical silos’ of functions, geography and organizational boundaries. It can include managing external stakeholders, multifunctional and virtual teams. Thus, in this structure the employment from different departments of the organization temporarily work together. In the matrix structure, there is no particular direction of authority and responsibility and a single individual may receive commands from two different sources at the same time. Leading in a Matrix ïÆ'Ëœ Context: - WhyRead MoreOrganizational Structure Of An Organization1085 Words   |  5 Pagesconformations that organizations can choose to build their business around. The organizational structure exemplifies the way in which control and business affairs have been appointed within the organization. Organizational structure encompasses the design of an organization though people positioning and responsibilities in order for organizational goals can be reached. Some of the time, a formal structure is not necessary due to a small informal business setting. In large organization responsibilitiesRead MoreStructure Has Always Been A Problem Within Most Organizations1055 Words   |  5 PagesStructure has always been a problem within most organizations and most organizations struggle with identifying the structure that is required for the success of the organization. The structure of an organization has a direct impact on the performance of an organization. The performance wi thin the Council has suffered due to the current hierarchal functional structure of the Council. All decisions and changes are made from the top down with little input from other staff members. The structureRead MoreManagement and Functional Areas1731 Words   |  7 Pages1. In the light of the system, describe the decisions to be made in the area of strategic planning, managerial control and operational control? What information would you require to make such decisions? Ans. A management information system (MIS) is an organized combination of people, hardware, communication networks and data sources that collects, transforms and distributes information in an organization. An MIS helps decision making by providing timely, relevant and accurate information to managersRead MoreProject Management1673 Words   |  7 Pages4. Describe the initiating processes. Give one example of an initiating process to support a particular phase of oil exploration project methodology. The initiating process signals the beginning of the project or phase. It requires an organization to make a commitment in terms of time and resources. Although all phases of the project should have some type of initiating process. The time and effort needed to develop the business case does not come without a cost. One can measure this costRead MoreFunctional Areas of Business1107 Words   |  5 PagesFunctional Areas of Business Management MGT/521 Functional Areas of Business The functional areas of business are areas that allow the organization to operate, develop, and progress abiding by laws and regulations when implementing policies and procedures in the organization to all employees and management. There are 10 functional areas of business: Management, law, human resources management, leadership, accounting, finance, economics, research and statistics, operations managementRead MoreFunctional Authority809 Words   |  4 PagesFUNCTIONAL AUTHORITY: Functional authority consists of the right to give orders within a segment of the organization in which this right is normally non existent. This authority is usually assigned to individuals to complement the line or staff authority they already possess. Functional Authority generally covers only specific task areas and is operational only for designated amounts of time. It is given to individuals who, in order to meet responsibilities in their own areas, must be able to exercise

Aspects of Romanticism in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein Essay

The world around us holds so many different things. There is the natural beauty of nature, found in waterfalls, and forests, deserts and beaches, that help us to appreciate where we come from. There is the supernatural, almost the exact opposite, being something that we either envy and want or despise and fear, such as witches and vampires, superheroes and magic. Everything we feel as people, as individuals plays into what we want and how we act. All of these things are aspects of Romanticism, which we can see in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Nature has a soothing and healing affect. There is poison ivy which will irritate your skin, but growing near it in the surrounding area, is jewelweed, a natural cure for the itch. There is the†¦show more content†¦Once you are dead you have ended, there is no more. By creating new life, and in essence, playing God, Victor upsets the balance in the world which becomes a major hazard later on. The monster, who is created from vario us men or â€Å"raw materials† as Victor calls them, to soothe his conscience, is ghastly to look at due to the stitches and scars that cover his body. Who wouldn’t be afraid of something so hideous, â€Å"his yellow skin scarcely covered the work of muscles and arteries beneath† (56), standing above all humans, a towering 8 feet tall, and his strength is enormous, able to crush bones in seconds. The monster appears to learn quickly, able to master the art of speech over a few months, where it takes humans years to learn how to talk in full and complete sentences. Almost all of his attributes are increased to â€Å"super human† level, strength beyond normal, his height, his intelligence, and his capacity for emotion. He can love, he can hate, he can fear, and they are all taken to an extreme level. He falls in love, on a non romantic level, with Safie and Felix, wanting the best for them and caring for them, showing a very protective side, finding great j oy in bringing happiness to â€Å"his† family. After being run from the hovel the monster lives in the forest, his body better equipped to the harsh conditions and bitter temperatures, allowing him to live in the Arctic desert where Victor ultimately tracks him. Though the monster needsShow MoreRelatedRomanticism In Frankenstein Essay740 Words   |  3 Pages Mariah McCoy Dr.Bardot His-102 16 June 2017 Historical Relevance Within Frankenstein Imagine a world without Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution,and Romanticism. Mary Shelley uses these topics in her novel to expose the effects that each of these had on society. Frankenstein is a novel that was published in the early 1800’s and tells a story about a man by the name of Victor Frankenstein. Technology and critical thinking skills plays a huge role in the novel and real life.By analyzingRead MoreMary Shelley ´s Frankenstein; Or, the Modern Prometheus, an Analysis of the Subtitle1219 Words   |  5 Pages(Shelley 37). Ab initio Victor Frankenstein, the main protagonist, is being put on a level with Prometheus through the subtitle. An indication that Mary Shelley did indeed have the myth in mind as she wrote the novel, is not only her subtitle, but moreover the parallels between the Prometheus myth and Frankenstein, which are undeniable. The title itself gives a lot away of the story which follows. It links the modern world with the ancient Greek myth. Victor Frankenstein â€Å"steals† the secret of lifeRead MoreMary Shelley and Flannery OConnor: Gothic Isolationists1724 Words   |  7 Pages Gothic fiction is a genre of literature that combines fiction, horror and Romanticism with a particular focus on the mysterious and supernatural aspects. Gothic fiction originated in England during the latter half of the 18th century. This distinctive genre of literature soon developed into a 19th century phenomenon. The success of this dominant genre in England is frequently attributed to Mary Shelley. Despite its success during this time period, gothic fiction ceased to be a dominant genre byRead MoreMany Of The Main Ideas Behind The Literary Movement Of1603 Words   |  7 Pagesmovement of Romanticism can be seen in Frankenstein by Mary Shelley. Although the dark motifs of her most remembered work, Frankenstein may not seem to conform to the brighter tones and subjects of the poems of her husband Percy Bysshe Shelley, and their c ontemporaries and friends, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Mary Shelley was a contemporary of the romantic poets. Despite this apparent difference, Mary Shelley was deeply influenced by the romantics, and the reader of Frankenstein can certainlyRead MoreThe Impact Of The Romantic Period In Frankenstein By Mary Shelley964 Words   |  4 PagesMary Shelley and her novel, Frankenstein Mary Shelley, wife of Percy Shelley, became a highly respected household name after she wrote and published her famous novel, Frankenstein, during The Romantic Period. Mary Shelley indirectly reflects her backstory and The Romantic Period through Frankenstein, and even impacts The Romantic Period through her novel. Evidence of both the reflection of The Romantic Period and Ms. Shelley’s impact on it are found in her background, the time period itself (as wellRead MoreIn What Ways Does Frankenstein Complicate the Romanticist Conceptions of Creativity and Individualism? Make Reference to Frankenstein and at Least One Other Romanticist Text.1884 Words   |  8 PagesIn what ways does Frankenstein complicate the Romanticist conceptions of creativity and individualism? Make reference to Frankenstein and at least one other Romanticist text. Mary Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein, complies with all the fundamental principles associated with Romanticism; use of the supernatural and sublime, especially with regards for nature, thus leading to pantheism, compassion and a sense of morality towards humankind, individual freedom and rebellion against contextual societalRead MoreAnalysis of Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay1720 Words   |  7 PagesAnalysis of Mary Shelleys Frankenstein Analyzing a book can be a killer. Especially when it contains tons of subtle little messages and hints that are not picked up unless one really dissects the material. Mary Shelleys Frankenstein is a prime example. 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It is a work which portrays a lot of themes, symbols, motifs and it is contextualized in a period with a lot of changes in the society. In this essay I will explore the many aspects of Frankenstein that influence in the society for its later staging of horror films. Mary Shelley was a British novelist and she was best known for her novel Frankenstein or, The Modern Prometheus; this science-fiction novel was published in 1818 and it was set in 1789 inRead MoreFrankenstein Novel Analysis Essay1664 Words   |  7 PagesMyrjun Angeles Ms. Ammendolia EWC4UI 10/13/17 Frankenstein Novel Analysis Frankenstein is partly an epistolary novel. In what way do the letters at the beginning of the text help frame the story that follows? The series of letters at the beginning of Frankenstein by Mary Shelley are from Robert Walton, and were sent to his sister, Margaret Saville. In each letter, Walton tells his sister of updates while he’s on one of many sea trips and to coincide with that, readers of the novel get a glimpse

Fraud Awareness Prevention-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Fraud Awareness Prevention. Answer: Fraud description The fraud under consideration, in this case, is cyber-crime that was committed between 8.00 AM to 10.00 PM on 21st January 2018 at London city in Canada. This fraud act was allegedly committed by John Black Hat. It was reported by one of the companies (AGH Company) in the city that the alleged fraudster hacked into companys bank account and transferred a huge amount of money. From the actions of John Black Hat, the police noted three main characteristics of this fraudster. The first character associated with John was deprivation. When police confiscated his laptops from his warehouse, he denied any ownership until the system recognized his as the most wanted cyber-attacker (Bohm, 2013). Second, he is deceptive and lastly risk taker. Despite counter cyber-cyber-crime set by Canadian legal system, John risked being arrested. This fraud is an offense punishable by law. In this case, the fraud was perpetuated to be a deliberate act that John Black Hat committed knowing the legal status of his act. Under Canadian Criminal Code section 342, the fraud was categorized under Canadian cyber-crime laws. This law was applied to determine whether John was liable or not. The company suffered damages for financial loss. Thus, the case was perpetuated on the basis of section 342. According to Canadian criminal code, hacking is a form of cyber-crime that result in a criminal offense punishable by law. This fraud falls under section 342 of the criminal code that deals with theft, forgery of credit cards and authorized use of a computer (Allen, 2011). Thus, this fraud was prosecuted as a criminal offense. The body that propelled this case was given mandate by Canadian computer crime laws. In this case, the plaintiffs would be AGH Company while the defendant will be John Black Hat. During court proceedings, this case was presented as AGH Company VS John Black Hat. Identification of fraudster The name of the alleged fraudster was John Black Hat. The company later realized that the hacker would not have managed to access the companys bank account with inside information. Thus, it was discovered that several individuals assisted John Black Hat to access this confidential information. According to police interrogation, the companys system administrator Mr. David Wright was found liable for leaking confidential data to John Black Hat. There were blueprints that were discovered by police that connect these two individuals (Allen, 2008). This was a supportive action since Mr. David Wright got a share from that fraud. Identification of victim This fraud exposed a lot of people and organization to risks. The immediate direct victim was the company. The company lost a lot of money which may result in the collapse of the operations if the money would not be recovered. Other victims, in this case, include investors. There were a lot of people who invested in the company and suffered financial loss. All the shareholders in the company also suffered damages. The company had borrowed a lot of money from the financial institution which may result in delays in loan repayment. This form of breach of contract will make the company lose external and external confidence. Discovery and Outcomes This fraud was discovered when the bank sent a memo notifying the company of huge withdrawal of money from the account. This information revealed that unknown individual transferred a huge amount of money to mysterious account was would not be traced. Upon receiving this memo, the company responded with little or no knowledge of the withdrawal. Records and bank balance indicated that the bank account has been accessed illegally (Alan, 2004). Police investigation revealed this as hacking or cyber-crime. Use techniques in ethical hacking unit, police managed to reveal the blueprint of the person who hacked the back and his place of action. John Black Hat was apprehended by police as he planned to damage evidence against him. From police investigation, it was clear that this fraud was committed by John and David deliberately with the intention of stealing money from the company. They were taken to court and charged under section 342 of the criminal code (Barnhorst, 2009). The ethical hacking unit managed to recover the transferred money from mysterious bank accounts. The report from criminal court also found John Black Hat guilty of other cyber-crime offenses that had not been discovered before. The court ordered full recovery of money lost through this kind of fraud (Siegel, 2014). AGH Company managed to recover full amount that had been confiscated. In the same, Mr. David Wright cooperated with the court and he confessed to having given information to John Black Hat. In his rule, Judge Peter Moore found John Hat guilty and was sent to jail for life. Mr. David Wright was also found guilty but he was sentenced to ten years in jail since he assisted in police investigations. References Alan, B. (2004). Social Research Methods, 2nd edn. New York: Oxford University Press. Allen, B.V. (2008). Police Powers: Law, Order, and Accountability. Pearson Education Canada. Allen, B.V. (2011). Criminal Investigation: Search of the Truth (2nd edition). Pearson Education Canada. Barnhorst, R. (2009). Criminal Law and the Canadian Criminal Code. McGraw-Hill Ryerson Higher Education. Bohm, R.M. (2013). Introduction to Criminal Justice, 8th edn. McGraw-Hill Education. Siegel, L.J. (2014). Criminology: The Core, 5th edn. Wadsworth Publishing.

Internet as Management Research Methodology- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theInternet as Management Research Methodology. Answer: Introduction Management research is very important for any type of organization. To perform the organizational activities efficiently and productively, the organizational invest considerable amount of time and capital in management research. Companies conduct management research for many purposes, starting from improvement in organizational culture, testing new products and services, increase in productivity, enhancing sales and customer support services, measuring the effectiveness of the promotional activities and most importantly studying the market competition, threats and opportunities (Fiss, Cambr and Marx 2013). Internet has been chosen as the research method for this essay. The justification for choosing this method is as follows. Over the years, the researchers have used various methods for research, but after the discovery of internet, the process of research has changed significantly. The modern world is dominated by advanced technology and internet is the biggest discovery in this area. Internet has changed the course of the businesses. With globalization and trade liberalization in effect, internet has helped the organizations to expand internationally. It also helped the companies to do external environment analysis before international expansion (Hewson and Stewart 2016). All types of organizations have been improving their technological capability to compete with the world. The internet research method is beneficial in terms of getting all sorts of relevant data in a very short span of time. This research method not only saves time for research, but it also helps in saving the cost of data collection and analysis (Ngai, Tao and Moon 2015). The objective of this paper is to find out the pros and cons of using internet as a research method while applying the other methodologies in a management research study. The scope of internet as a research method is huge. It not only provides the necessary information required for conducting a research, but also throws light on the various techniques that can be applied for conducting the research study by the organizations. In this research paper, various dimensions of internet as a research methodology will be highlighted, which will be followed by the recommendations to apply the internet in the best possible manner for conducting any management research in any organization. Literature review Internet as a research method Internet as a management research method has become extremely popular in the last few decades. It helps the organizations to access huge amount of information for conducting the research on a particular management issue and get the directions to solve that. For any kind research, the researcher must collect data and analyze those applying suitable methods. According to Zikmund et al. (2013), internet offers several different research methods, known as Online Research Methods (ORMs). These are the methods or practices followed by the researchers for relevant data collection for the research study by the using the internet. These are also called the internet research methods. Majority of these research methodologies are enhancement of the existing methodologies by applying the new technologies. Internet has contributed in the re-invention and restructuring of the research methods with the incorporation of the new technology. The world has become smaller with the invention of internet and it has influenced every aspect of life. The growth of the Social Medias has added a new dimension, new level of opportunity and complexity in the education, research and business (Ngai, Tao and Moon 2015). Hence, social media or virtual media has become a very important research field. It provides unique insights to various research studies on the customer and social segments that have a significant influence on the businesses and management of the organizations. Hence, although the management issues are dependent on the type of business, these issues have impact on the business and to solve the issues, research is needed to find out the best possible solutions (McDaniel and Gates 2013). Through the application of various internet research methods, the businesses can do this quite efficiently. Different types of internet research methods are, cyber-ethnography, online focus groups, online content analysis, online interviews, online surveys, social network analysis, online qualitative research, online quantitative research and web based experiments (Bryman 2015). The common factor in all the above research methods is the presence of internet as a research tool. The relevance of using internet can be justified using the following example. An organization in the consumer goods industry wants to expand its sales. For that, it needs to know about the demand of the customers, which will help it to take the decisions about whether it should increase the production of the existing product or it should opt for product differentiation. Hence, this is a management issue of the organization and market research is the best method to know the trend of the market. The organization adopts the online survey method for the research. The survey questionnaire is sent via email to few randomly selected customers, from the CRM database and their responses are also collected via online method. After the responses were collected, the management can perform scientific calculations on the data and can make decisions about the business expansion. It can be said from the above hypothetical situation that, internet has helped the organization immensely during conducting the survey and data collection. They did not have to print questionnaire and meet the customers physically to give it to them. They also did not have to worry about the location of the customers. Emailing the questionnaire has not only reduced the cost and time of the survey, but also the hassle of data collection (McDaniel and Gates 2013). The management of the company can also perform social media analysis to find out the tastes and preferences of the target consumer group via online methods. Hence, the entire research process has been faster and the management of the organization can proceed to rational decisi on making process quite easily and in a quickly manner. Use of internet in secondary research Internet as a research method is immensely beneficial for conducting secondary research. Secondary data are the ones that are collected from already published sources, such as, official websites, online publications, academic journals, books, magazines, newspaper articles and business reports (Hanna 2012). Internet research method is extremely beneficial for collecting secondary data for any research. According to Miorandi et al. (2012), internet enhances the traditional research methodologies. In the traditional methods, any research methodology follows few basic steps of choosing the research philosophy, paradigm, approach, design, sampling techniques, and data collection techniques (Bryman and Bell 2015). In these methods, application of internet plays a significant role in improving the accuracy. The researchers can find huge amount of information on the research methodologies with the help of internet, can apply sampling techniques by using various online tools and can collect r elevant primary and secondary data from various sources. Characteristics of internet as a management research method The characteristics of internet as a research method are quite distinct from the other research methods. Gosling and Mason (2015) state that, internet is one of the best mediums of communication in the technologically advanced era. It provides multiple means of communication and interaction within the community and among the organization located across the globe. For collecting primary data for a research study, the management of the organizations can easily communicate with the respondents, whom are chosen using a suitable sampling technique, via different channels on the internet, such as, email, social media, websites, online newsletters etc. This type of communication is more convenient in terms of time and cost effectiveness. As stated by Hewson and Laurent (2012), the reach of internet is widespread, irrespective of the geographical location and distance. Hence, the researchers do not need to travel to other locations to collect the data for research. With the help of internet, they can access the relevant data for the research study from online libraries, online publications and books, official websites, newspaper articles etc. Internet gives scope to be anonymous and maintain the privacy of personal information and confidentiality of data (Markham 2014). The participation or interaction between the people can remain secret as face to face interaction does not happen. Justification of the usage of internet as a research method In the management research studies, usage of internet is relevant as the technology has become quite advanced. The researchers can adopt either qualitative or quantitative or mixed approach of study, based on the requirement of the paper. Selection of the research philosophy, design, strategy and approach are determined by the topic and research objectives of the study (Roman, Zhou and Lopez 2013). Internet helps the researcher to get information about the available research topics before choosing a particular one. It also helps in getting insights about which approach and strategy to be chosen for the particular research. For the management research studies in the organizational level, the companies often need to do social media analysis to get an idea about the tastes and preferences of the customers and change in the pattern of the market trends (Hewson and Laurent 2012). This research can only be possible to be conducted using internet method, which not only provides the informat ion faster, but also helps to get the precise outcome quicker. Ethical issues in using internet Every research method has some ethical issues and internet is no exception. Conducting a research on a particular topic requires permission from the sources. Even conducting the survey and interviews also require permission from the respondents (Williams 2012). The researcher must agree to the terms and conditions regarding data confidentiality. Internet gives opportunity to the researchers to reach out to the individuals in remote areas where it is impossible to go to conduct the research. With this matter, comes the question of ethical considerations. Determination of safe environment for conducting the research, security and confidentiality of the data, availing the consent of the participants of the surveys and interviews and performing secondary analysis on the archived information are the ethical concerns that the researchers face (NESH 2014). Hence, the researchers must be aware of the laws regarding the ethical usage of internet for research and must follow those rules to the core to maintain the integrity of the research. Another important area of ethics is the originality of the research paper. The plethora of information that is available on the internet often tempts the researcher to copy it without making any changes. The researcher must maintain the originality of the paper. Copying information from other scholars papers or from any other sources without giving proper reference citation is a crime in the educational world and in the management research as well. Hence, even if the researcher is using internet as a management research method, he must mention the source of information in the research paper. Thus, the researchers must address the ethical issues of privacy, recruitment, informed consent, cloud computing and ethics of industry conduced research by following the ethical consideration guidelines (Plato.stanford.edu 2016). Advantages and disadvantages of using internet as a management research method Like any other management research method, internet also has advantages and disadvantages. As mentioned above, easy communication, privacy and confidentiality, and wide range of access are the major advantages of internet as a research method. The other advantages include, the ability to acquire large and more diverse samples, automatically coded data and decreased cost of conducting the research (Markham 2014). There are some disadvantages also about using internet as a research methodology. Firstly, the authenticity of the data cannot always be trusted. Unless it is from an official website, the researcher should not trust any other source which does not have any particular validation or authentication. Secondly, in many cases, the data or the research papers are not available for free of cost. The researcher should pay a price to the online libraries to get access to the paper. Sometimes, it becomes difficult to the researcher to pay to multiple libraries due to lack of financial resources (Miorandi et al. 2012). Thirdly, the researcher faces some potential challenges during conduct of the surveys or interviews. The participants may not reveal the true answers, some may stop answering mid way and come back later, some may not complete the study, some may participate more than once, some may rush through the study and answer incorrectly. All these factors lead to biased responses, leading to undesired outcome or error in the results. Since, the researcher is not going for face-to-face interaction; it is not possible for rectifying the errors in the response patterns. Fourthly, there is risk of hacking and misusing the personal information on the internet, which prevents many from opening the survey mails and click on the link or revealing important details for the survey. Thus, the accuracy of the data and the result sometimes gets compromised due to sampling error and inaccurate responses (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson 2012). Recommendation As observed from the disadvantages of using internet as a research method for the management research, there can be a few ways to overcome the problems. Firstly, the researcher should not rely completely on the information gathered from the internet. Although, internet provides immense opportunity to find the right information as well as methodology for conducting the management research, still it is not reliable to conduct the study with only internet based data. It is always suggested to the researchers that they must use resources gathered from the internet and university libraries. It is easier to cross check the data obtained from the internet with that from the library and this ensures the reliability and authenticity of the data of the internet sources. Secondly, the huge amount of information on the internet can overwhelm the researcher while selecting the topic. Hence, the researchers must narrow down on the topic and must know the research objectives well to direct and limit the search in the right direction. Thirdly, the researchers must know the subject directories and the proper search engines to make specific searches. For conducting a well read study, the researchers must access the high quality peer reviewed articles by other scholars. These can be accessed from many good online libraries that contain the highly acclaimed papers. For that, proper keyword is required which would save a lot of time and effort of the researchers during the research. Fourthly, some precautions should be taken during conduction surveys and interviews over the internet. Some technical measures can be taken to remove duplicates in the data or making the questions mandatory for submitting the responses in a survey. It is also recommended that the researchers must keep a margin of error while doing the quantitative calculations on the obtained numerical data. Regarding qualitative research, the analysis should be validated by ensuring the authenticity of the sources and the methods applied. Conclusion Qualitative as well as quantitative study of the online research method is expected to change due to the emergence of new technologies and the abilities of the researchers to reinvent or explore the methodological approaches in the interactions related to the internet. There is huge scope in using the internet as a research method in the management studies or in the organizational activities. Regarding obtaining information through primary and secondary data collection from different types of sources and analyzing those keeping the ethical issues addressed, the researchers can exploit the internet for a high quality management research. Whether the research follows inductive or deductive method, qualitative or quantitative approach, internet offers the any advantages due to technological advancement. However, the researchers must consider the ethical issues and must apply appropriate techniques to handle the disadvantages of using internet as a research method. Hence, it can be said that, in the modern world, without using internet, a research study cannot be completed and the researchers must use it responsibly to produce a high quality research paper. References Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015.Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Bryman, A., 2015.Social research methods. Oxford university press. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Jackson, P.R., 2012.Management research. Sage. Fiss, P.C., Cambr, B. and Marx, A. eds., 2013.Configurational theory and methods in organizational research. Emerald Group Publishing. Gosling, S.D. and Mason, W., 2015. Internet research in psychology.Annual review of psychology,66. Hanna, P., 2012. Using internet technologies (such as Skype) as a research medium: A research note.Qualitative Research,12(2), pp.239-242. Hewson, C. and Laurent, D., 2012. Research design and tools for internet research.Sage Internet research methods,1. Hewson, C. and Stewart, D.W., 2016.Internet research methods. John Wiley Sons, Ltd. Markham, A. N., 2014.Internet Research. [ebook] Available at: https://annettemarkham.com/writing/silverman2011draft.pdf [Accessed 24 Mar. 2018]. McDaniel, C. and Gates, R., 2013.Marketing research. Singapore. Miorandi, D., Sicari, S., De Pellegrini, F. and Chlamtac, I., 2012. Internet of things: Vision, applications and research challenges.Ad hoc networks,10(7), pp.1497-1516. NESH, 2014.Ethical Guidelines for Internet Research. [ebook] National Committee for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences and the Humanities (NESH). Available at: https://www.etikkom.no/globalassets/documents/english-publications/ethical-guidelines-for-internet-research.pdf [Accessed 24 Mar. 2018]. Ngai, E.W., Tao, S.S. and Moon, K.K., 2015. Social media research: Theories, constructs, and conceptual frameworks.International Journal of Information Management,35(1), pp.33-44. Plato.stanford.edu, 2016.Internet Research Ethics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). [online] Plato.stanford.edu. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-internet-research/#Pri [Accessed 24 Mar. 2018]. Roman, R., Zhou, J. and Lopez, J., 2013. On the features and challenges of security and privacy in distributed internet of things.Computer Networks,57(10), pp.2266-2279. Williams, S. G., 2012.The Ethics of Internet Research. [online] Ojni.org. Available at: https://ojni.org/issues/?p=1708 [Accessed 24 Mar. 2018]. Zikmund, W.G., Babin, B.J., Carr, J.C. and Griffin, M., 2013.Business research methods. Cengage Learning.

Three Paradigms of Cold War free essay sample

In the history of human societies, I would venture, the term paradigm must take on a slightly di? erent meaning, closer, in fact, to how the term was generally used before Kuhn’s work in the early s. For our purpose, I want to look at paradigms as patterns of interpretation, which may possibly exist side by side, but which each signify a particular * Stuart L. Bernath Memorial Lecture delivered at St. Louis, ? April . A draft version of this lecture was presented to a faculty seminar at the London School of Economics on ? March . The author wishes to thank his LSE colleagues (especially MacGregor Knox) and David Reynolds of Cambridge University for their helpful comments (while absolving them from any responsibility for the lecture’s contents). ?. For more on how Cold War studies is developing as a ? eld of inquiry see Odd Arne Westad, ed. , Reviewing the Cold War: Approaches, Interpretations, Theory (London, ). D H , Vol. , No. ? (Fall ).  © The Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations (SHAFR). Published by Blackwell Publishers, Main Street, Malden, MA, , USA and Cowley Road, Oxford, OX? JF, UK. : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? approach – an angle of view, if I may – to the complex problems of Cold War history.? This is, of course, also to indicate genuine doubt as to whether comprehensive and mutually exclusive interpretations of the Cold War as a phenomenon are possible today. It seems to me that both our general approaches to how history is studied and the emergence of massive new bodies of evidence lead in the direction of analytical diversity and away from the concentration on so-called schools of interpretation. If one looks at the way the Cold War is taught at my school, one ? ds a multitude of approaches: as U. S. political history, as history of the Soviet Union, as history of Third World revolutions, as history of European integration, as hi story of gender relations, as history of economic globalization just to mention a few. Few of our colleagues twenty-? ve years ago would have foreseen how the ? eld has opened up and spread out way beyond diplomatic history. Our task now, it seems to me, is to ? nd ways to describe, in looking at this long axis of analysis, points that seem particularly promising for further scholarly inquiry, based on a combination of work already undertaken and the availability of sources. I have chosen to discuss three such possible paradigms in this article. They are the ones that seem to me best suited for rapid advances in our understanding of the Cold War as a period or as an international system, and not just as a bilateral con? ict or as diplomatic history. Perhaps the most useful – and certainly the most misused – of the paradigms I will be addressing here is that of ideology, understood as a set of fundamental concepts systematically expressed by a large group of individuals. Integrating the study of such fundamental concepts into our approach to international history holds tremendous promise as a method within a ? eld that has often ignored ideas as the basis for human action. Used in ways that are sensitive to historical evidence and consistent in their application, the introduction of ideology as a part of our understanding of motives and broad patterns of action helps us overcome two of the main problems that international historians of the Cold War often face. One is that we are seen to be better at explaining single events than we are at analyzing causes and consequences of larger historical shifts. The other is that we are – rightly, I believe – often seen as using a narrow concept of causality, mostly connected to interests or state policies.? Let me use an example. When President John F. Kennedy met with First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Nikita ?. Thomas J. Kuhn, The Structure of Scienti? c Revolutions (Chicago, ). Richard Evans, In Defense of History, rev. ed. (New York, ) has a useful discussion of the role of alternative paradigms in historical research. ?. For a discussion of operational de? nitions of ideology see Douglas J. MacDonald, â€Å"Formal Ideologies in the Cold War: Toward a Framework for Empirical Analysis,† in Westad, ed. , Reviewing the Cold War. Three (Possible) Paradigms : Khrushchev in Vienna in June , both leaders brought with them briefs and position papers that underlined the need to seek common ground on a number of issues, including the threat of nuclear war. Still, their public and private encounters were marked by sharp confrontation and the summit itself probably contributed to the increased tension that followed, culminating in the Cuban missile crisis the following year. Obviously, the policies that the two leaders pursued on most issues prior to their meeting were in con? ict. Equally clearly, the personalities of Kennedy and Khrushchev were, to put it mildly, disharmonious. But in order to understand the outcome of the summit, I ? nd that each man’s basic ideological perception – his preconceived image of his own role and that of the other leader – is an invaluable tool that can only be discarded at our peril.? For Khrushchev, it was not primarily Kennedy’s youth and relative inexperience that made it necessary to go on the o? nsive over Cuba and Berlin during the summit, or to lecture JFK on communism. It was, as those who came with Khrushchev to Vienna explain, because the Soviet leader was convinced that his society and political thinking were in ascendance, and that Kennedy, as a class representative of the U. S. â€Å"monopolists,† could be brought to recognize this historical necessity. For John Kennedy, it was exactly this ideological challenge that mattered most, since he perceived his own role as U. S. president as assuring â€Å"the survival and success of liberty† on a global scale. With the passing of the torch to a new generation, Kennedy more than anything meant a more vigorous and determined pursuit of U. S. ideological hegemony in the world.? While the Vienna example shows how ideologies can be used to understand both concrete historical events and long-term trends, it is important, as Douglas MacDonald has shown, that our use of the concept does not become determinist or one-sided. One danger is associated with the overreliance on ideologies as a kind of theoretical catchall – such as has happened in the case of some Gramscian Marxists – or the replacement of the historical narrative with the study of ideas per se. In other cases, ideology has been reduced to formal concepts, such as often happened in Cold War era U. S. studies of the Soviet Union, in which Marxism-Leninism (meaning the Marxist coda) kept out more composite and complex views of Soviet ideology. Finally, there is always the ?. On personalities and issues at the Kennedy-Khrushchev summit see Michael R. Beschloss, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev, – (New York, ); Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, â€Å"One Hell of Gamble†: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, – (New York, ; Lawrence Freedman, Kennedy’s Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam (New York, ); and Sergei N. Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower, trans. Shirley Benson (University Park, PA, ). ?. For Khrushchev see Oleg Troianovskii, Cherez gody i rasstoianiia: istoriia odnoi semi [Across time and space: One family’s history] (Moscow, ); and Oleg Grinevskii, Tysiacha i odin den Nikity Sergeevicha [Nikita Sergeevich’s thousand and one days] (Moscow, ); for Kennedy see Thomas C. Reeves, A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy (London, ); or Freedman, Kennedy’s Wars, chaps. ? and ?. Kennedy quote from inaugural address, January , at http://www. hpol. org/jfk/. : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? danger of making the other side â€Å"ideological† – and one’s own side only too logical or interest driven. I see this as one of the main post-Cold War fallacies of U. S. international historians – while we have gradually become comfortable with making ideology an integral part of the study of Soviet foreign relations, many people in the ? eld ? nd it much more di? cult to deal with U. S. elite ideology as a meaningful concept.? As Michael Hunt has pointed out, the latter omission is particularly important to rectify if ideology is to be used as a meaningful interpretive tool. I would claim that during much of the Cold War, the ideology of the U. S. foreign policy elite was more pervasive in terms of decision making than was that of Soviet party leaders. In the cases that really mattered – the Marshall Plan, the support for European integration, U. S. occupation policy in Japan – it was a set of key U. S. ideas centered on a speci? c U. S. esponsibility for the global expansion of freedom that made the di? erence. These ideas, which emphasized freedom of expression, freedom of ownership, and freedom of capitalist exchanges and negated freedom of collective organization, precapitalist values, or revolutionary action, were essential elements in the U. S. transformation of the world after , and in Washington’s unwillingness to engage the Soviet U nion in the give and take of pre-World War II diplomatic practice.? As will be clear from the above, I to some extent go along with Anders Stephanson’s contention that the Cold War may pro? ably be seen as a U. S. ideological project, although I would go much further than Stephanson in giving autonomy to other actors – my point is that it was to a great extent American ideas and their in? uence that made the Soviet-American con? ict into a Cold War. While Soviet foreign policy was no less fueled by its key ideas or its understanding of what made the world tick, the crucial di? erence is that at most times Soviet leaders were acutely aware of their lack of international hegemony and the weakness (relative to the United States and its allies) of Soviet or Communist power. From the Yalta summit to the Malta summit they therefore most often thought that they would have to satisfy themselves – short term, as they saw it – with what they could get from the standard Great Power mix of negotiations, cajoling, and limited military action. On the U. S. side, although the general public have been quite regularly visited by elements of paranoia with regard to the outside world, what really needs explanation is the remarkable consistency with which the U. S. foreign policy elite has de? ned the nation’s international purpose over the past three to four generations. That purpose has been the global domination of its ideas – and although military domination has ?. MacDonald, â€Å"Formal Ideologies. † See also Westad, â€Å"Secrets of the Second World: Russian Archives and the Reinterpretation of Cold War History,† Diplomatic History (Spring ): –. John Lewis Gaddis summarizes the arguments for why Marxism-Leninism mattered in We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York, ). ?. Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and American Foreign Policy (New Haven, ). As I have pointed out earlier, the study of U. S. oreign policy ideology is in itself a useful way of transcending the orthodox de? nitions of historiographical â€Å"schools. † See Westad, â€Å"Introduction,† in Westad, ed. , Reviewing the Cold War. Three (Possible) Paradigms : not always been recognized as a necessary companion to this ideological hegemony, it has still been an aim that U. S. leaders have been willing to intervene to accomplish from World War I to the Kosovo con? ict.? For most of the Cold War the majority of Americans did not share their leaders’ willingness to spend their resources on extending U. S. ideas abroad. Without help from Stalin and the generation of Soviet leaders he created, it is uncertain whether the Truman and Eisenhower administrations would have been able to keep a strong U. S. involvement in Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia. Stalin believed that by isolating the Soviet Union and the countries it had occupied after the war, he could preserve the Communist dictatorship and build a long-term challenge to U. S. domination. Had it not been for Stalin’s in? exibility and his insistence that his â€Å"zone† was extraneous to any form of U. S. in? uence, it would have been much more di? cult for the U. S. foreign policy elites to get at least limited acceptance among the general public for substantial and long-term foreign involvements.? What then about the countries that joined with the United States in waging Cold War against communism – ? rst and foremost Western Europe and Japan? The West European elites that issued the â€Å"invitations to empire† that Geir Lundestad has emphasized seem to have done so both out of fear of Stalin’s intentions and because of the attractiveness of U. S. assistance in sorting out their own domestic problems. What is much more important to understand, though, is how he U. S. response to the â€Å"invitations† came to be shaped – not as a rescue operation for besieged (and to a great extent discredited) political leaderships but as conscious and comprehensive attempts at changing Europe (and Japan) in the direction of U. S. ideas and models. To me, it is the ? exibility of U. S. policies and the negotiability of th e ideology they were based on that explain both the uniquely successful alliance systems that the United States established with Western Europe and Japan and the rapid political, social, and economic transformation that these countries went through. This, perhaps, was the real revolution of the Cold War: that the United States over a period of ? fty years transformed its main capitalist competitors according to its own image. This did not, of course, happen without con? ict. But mostly – and in great part because of the Cold War perceptions of an external threat – it was a peaceful transformation. Its peacefulness, however, ?. Anders Stephanson, â€Å"Fourteen Notes on the Very Concept of the Cold War,† http://mail. hnet. msu. edu/~diplo/stephanson. html. This is of course not denying that ideology was crucial to Soviet foreign policy – my point here is about capabilities, not intentions. For an attempt at de? ning the key ideological themes in U. S. foreign policy history see David Ryan, US Foreign Policy in World History (London, ). ?. For Stalin’s intentions see Vojtech Mastny, The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years (New York, ); and Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA, ). For U. S. perceptions see Melvyn P. Le? er, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, . . Geir Lundestad, â€Å"Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, – ,† Journal of Peace Research , no. ? ( ): – ; John L. Harper, American Visions of Europe: Franklin D. Roosevelt, George F. Kennan, and Dean G. Acheson (Cambridge, England, ). : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? and the fact that it happened as much as a result of trade, education, and consumer culture as political pressure should not obscure its intrinsicality. In the novel for which he received the Nobel Prize for iterature last year, the German author Gunter Grass describes how his country has changed over the past century, with the most basic transformations happening after . It was not just the e? ects of World War II that changed Germany, Grass seems to argue, it was the postwar presence of the Americans. The same – although to di? ering degrees – could be said of all of the United States’s key alliance partners. The changes in policies, social strati? cation, and economic foundations that the U. S. presence inspired gradually created systems of alliances that were based on similar world views and that could survive con? cts of interest (unlike those of the East). To me, at least, it is the second generation of postwar leaders who hold the key to this more profound transformation: Helmut Kohl, Francois Mitterrand, Margaret Thatcher, Yasuhiro Nakasone, all born in the interwar years, cam e to accept U. S. models much more readily than previous or (perhaps) coming generations, and in doing so they not only changed their countries (and settled the Cold War) but also laid the foundations for the new system of globalized markets that in e? ect replaced the East-West con? ict. In terms of ideologies, one may say that the Cold War was a con? ct between two di? erent versions of what anthropologist James C. Scott refers to as high modernism – on the one hand, one that underlined social justice and the role of the industrial proletariat, and, on the other, one that emphasized individuality and the role of the stake-holding middle class. For the world at large, both ideologies were in their ways revolutionary, intent on transforming the world in their image. As with many modernist projects, American and Soviet Cold War ideologies based an important part of their legitimacies on the control of nature, be it human nature or our physical surroundings. They were both attempts at simplifying a complex world through social engineering, massive exploitation of resources, regulation, and technology. Technology was the epitome of both ideologies and of the systems they represented – it symbolized the conquest of nature itself for socialism or for freedom and the use the . Two excellent overviews charting these developments, in politics and economics, respectively, are John Killick, The United States and European Reconstruction, – (Edinburgh, ); and Marie-Louise Djelic, Exporting the American Model: The Postwar Transformation of European Business (Oxford, . See also Margaret Blomchard, Exporting the First Amendment: The Press-Government Crusade of – (New York, ). For Germany see Ralph Willett, The Americanization of Germany, – (London, ); for France see Richard Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, ). . Gunter Grass, Mein Jahrhundert [My century] (Gottingen, ). Insight s on how the American alliances have in? uenced the four leaders are in Hugo Young, One of Us: A Biograpy of Margaret Thatcher (London, ); Karl Hugo Pruys, Helmut Kohl: Die Biographie [Helmut Kohl: The biography] (Berlin, ; Jean Lacouture, Mitterrand: une histoire de Francais [Mitterrand: A history of the French] (Paris, ); and Yasuhiro Nakasone, The Making of the New Japan (Richmond, ). Three (Possible) Paradigms : physical world could be put to in constructing a social system or in confronting its enemies. At the beginning of the Cold War, nuclear technology stood at the core of the con? ict. U. S. possession of the secrets of atomic energy created a push for wider global responsibilities among U. S. political leaders and fueled deep-felt suspicions within the Communist movement about U. S. plans for controlling their countries. The Soviet quest to develop a nuclear capability of its own was – as David Holloway has explained – a key feature in Moscow’s establishment of a Cold War world view. The future of socialism depended on the Soviet Union matching the technological achievements of the imperialist states. Without a Soviet bomb, the socialist world would be inherently weak and under constant pressure. But nuclear technology was not only important for the military aspects of the con? ict. In the late s and early the battle for access to energy resources formed part of the core Cold War competition, and atomic energy was of course a vital part of that battle. Both on the Soviet and the American side degrees of modernity were measured in energy output – it was as if Lenin’s adage that â€Å"Communism is workers’ power plus electricity† held true in both Moscow and Washington. As the Soviet Union dramatically increase d its energy output in the s – the ? rst Soviet nuclear power plant became operational in – there was a widespread sense that Moscow’s model of development could eventually overtake that of the United States. One of the biggest surprises that early Cold Warriors would have been in for, had they still been with us in the s and s, was that it was neither nuclear bombs nor nuclear power that came to decide the Cold War. After Nagasaki, the bombs were never used. After Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, nuclear power lost much of its luster, and some advanced industrial states, such as Sweden, are now closing down their nuclear plants. While nuclear technology therefore defends its place in Cold War history, more attention needs to be paid to other connections and implications of the relationship between the Cold War con? ct and the development of science and technology. . James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, ). For further discussion of technology as key to the modernity project see Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, ); and Marshall Berman, All That is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York, ). See also, of course, Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York, ). For overviews of the Soviet approach see Kendall Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton, ); and especially Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (New York, ). Stephen Kotkin has an excellent discussion of Soviet modernity and its discontents in Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (Berkeley, ). The classic statement of technology as power in the postwar world is Vannevar Bush, Science: The Endless Frontier (Washington, ). . David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, (New Haven, ) . William O’Neill, A Better World: Stalinism and the American Intellectuals (London, ); Marcello Flores, L’immagine dell’URSS: l’Occidente e la Russia di Stalin ( – ) [The image of the USSR: The West and Stalin’s Russia ( – )] (Milan, ). : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? As David Reynolds explains in his compelling survey of international trends since World War II, these connections are not di? cult to ? nd. Already in October Secretary of War Robert Patterson noted that â€Å"the laboratories of America have now become our ? rst line of defense. Ten years later more than half of all spending, public or private, on industrial research and development in the United States went to defense projects. Crucial areas of technology that were opened up through defense-related funding include navigation systems, space exploration, and even genetics (including the Human Genome Project). But ? rst and foremost, in terms of its short-term implications, the Cold War provided public funding for research in electronics and communications – the two areas of technology, it might be said, that most contributed to the global changes that took place during the Cold War, and to the way the con? ct ended. With regard to the development of global, interconnected communication systems, it has been argued that the S oviet Union collapsed because, in the words of one author, it â€Å"did not get the message. † In , the Soviet Union had around one-sixth as many telephone connections as the United States, and – as everyone who visited with the Soviets can testify to – those that did exist often did not work very well. By the mid- , however, the Soviets had communications satellites in orbit, as a result of their enormous investments in space technology, that could have been used to connect the Soviet Union to the emerging communication networks and to spread the Soviet message to the world. Why didn’t that happen There are two meaningful ways of answering that question. The ? rst is that the failure to link up was the result of decades of Soviet isolation – in part self-imposed, in part enforced. On the one hand, there was Moscow’s fear that, as one former CPSU leader put it, â€Å"with their technology comes their political system and their culture. On the other hand, there was the Western urge to isolate the Soviets, in part so that their political system would su? er from not having access to the newest technology. But there are also more inherent reasons for the Soviet communications failure. Not only did the peoples of Eastern Europe show by the direction of their antennas that they preferred Dallas to Dresden but also the Soviet leadership simply did not want to invest in more elaborate wars of propaganda, since they knew that socialism was winning in the long run. Contrary to the general perception at the time, it was the United States that was the propaganda master of the Cold War, in terms of both e? ort and resources spent. . The following paragraphs are based on David Reynolds, One World Divisible: A Global History since (New York, ), – ; Patterson quote on . . John Barber and Mark Harrison, eds. , The Soviet Defense-Industry Complex from Stalin to Khrushchev (New York, ); Je? rey L. Roberg, Soviet Science under Control: The Struggle for In? uence (London, ). . Former Vice-Foreign Minister Georgi Kornienko, interview with author, ? February . On U. S. propaganda see Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, – (Basingstoke, ); and Frances Stonor Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London, ). For a very instructive overview of the purposes behind the physical presentation of the United States abroad see Robert H. Haddow, Pavilions of Plenty: Exhibiting American Culture Abroad in the s (Washington, ). Three (Possible) Paradigms : The other main technology with an immediate Cold War relevance was, of course, the development of computers. Like advanced communications, the ? rst computers were all for military use in the United States and Britain, and, as a technology, came out of the needs of World War II. In the United States, the history of the development of computers is very much connected to the history of one company, IBM, and one business leader, Thomas J. Watson. In the s over half of IBM’s revenues came from the analog guidance computer for the B- Bomber and from the SAGE air defense system. As Watson himself put it: â€Å"It was the Cold War that helped IBM make itself the king of the computer business. † The Soviet Union, it could be argued, was not far behind the West in computer development in the early s. But then something happened. Even though the U. S. military took percent of the overall production of computer chips as late as , by the Pentagon procurers had begun to look outside the big companies for some of their needs. It was this increasing ? exibility in the U. S. military-industrial-academic complex in the mid- s – or, to put it more bluntly, the marriage between easy defense money and Bay Area ? owerpower – that created the crucial breakthrough, the commercially available personal computer. This was something the Soviet Union would not want to match – its research went into big computers for big purposes. It was out of the need to link small (but available) computers at di? erent U. S. military research centers that the ? rst long distance computer network, ARPAnet, developed in the s. This union of computer chips and communications – later to be known as the Internet – was perhaps the single most important technological innovation of the Cold War. By the late s it came to de? ne, in a very narrow sense, who was on the inside and who was on the outside. Linking the main capitalist centers more closely together in terms of business, trade, and education, the Internet came to underline exchange of all sorts, and was gradually spreading out of its original centers in North America, Japan, and Western Europe. Communications technology had become an important part of the message of global capitalism. Indeed, it could be argued that the market revolution of the late twentieth century – or globalization if one prefers to use that term – would not have been possible without the advances in communications that the Cold War competition brought on. The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were cut o? from this development by choice as well as by design. The new communications technology made the East Bloc elites feel isolated in a di? erent sense than before. By the late s . Watson quoted in Reynolds, One World Divisible, . . See Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York, ); Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (New York, ); for the Soviet Union see Daniel L. Burghart, Red Microchip: Technology Transfer, Export Control, and Economic Restructuring in the Soviet Union (Aldershot, ). . Richard O’Brien, Global Financial Integration: The End of Geography (London, ). : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? it seemed as if not just the Soviet Union’s Western enemies but substantial parts of the rest of the world – East and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and parts of the Middle East – were moving away from interaction with it and toward a higher degree of interaction with each other. The ruling Communist parties, within their own countries, also had to compete with the image of the West as being more advanced, an image that was, in the case of Eastern Europe, projected daily into many people’s homes through terrestrial or satellite antennas. In the end, Mikhail Gorbachev’s perestroika project was about being included into the world that the satellite channels represented while upholding a degree of ideological challenge to the system that had created them. His was no surprising failure, although the consequences of that failure rightly stunned the world. In the little that has been written so far by historians about the role of technology in the Cold War, their overall relationship has often been reduced to the simple question of which political and social system delivered and which did not. Looking at Cold War technology in the way I have tried to present it here, this is perhaps the wrong question to ask. It is better, I think, to explore the purposes for which technology was developed in its di? rent settings and to discuss the way the military-technological policies on both sides contributed to the direction of science and to the many weapons with which the Cold War was fought – from strategic missiles to satellite transmissions and computer networks. Against this proposition of making the history of technology a key aspect of the new Cold War history, it is sometimes said that we are confusing categories, that technology is in its essence politically and ideologically neutral. In the strictest sense this is of course true. For individual scientists it is the thrill of discovery that matters, not the speci? purposes for which the invention will later be used. But if we want to understand the Cold War in terms not just of diplomacy and warfare but also in terms of social and political development, we need to look more closely at how technology was created, for what purposes it was used, and how some aspects of it came to de? ne, in very concrete terms, the ? nal stages of the Cold War con? ict. We need to explore the links between military priorities and technological development and to be open to the suggestion that innovation in some key areas during the past ? ty years moved in directions it would not have taken had it not been for the Cold War. Approached along these lines, I believe that the interplay between technology, politics, and social development forms one of the most useful prisms through w hich to view the East-West con? ict. Such research would not just deal with â€Å"technological imperatives† (if there ever was such a thing), but more profoundly, begin to see the Cold War as a con? ict of the core concepts of . See, for instance, Peter Dicken, Global Shift: The Internationalization of Economic Activity (London, or, for a more critical view, Thomas C. Patterson, Change and Development in the Twentieth Century (Oxford, ), esp. –. Three (Possible) Paradigms : modernity, an essential part of which was what direction technological innovation should take and for what means its products should be used. This con? ict took on a particular signi? cance for areas outside Europe and North America, since their meeting with modernity, and, eventually, with capitalism, to a great extent happened during the Cold War era. As I will explore in the next section, there is little doubt that these encounters would have been less unhappy and less destructive had it not been for the globalization of the Cold War con? ict and the superpower interventions that this produced. The concept of three worlds is often seen as a product of Cold War perceptions: A ? rst (in every sense) world consisting of the main capitalist states; a second (alternative) world made up of the Soviet Union and its allies; and a third (-class) world constituting the rest. Interestingly, this etymology is almost certainly wrong; the term Tiers monde was ? st developed by the French economist and demographer Alfred Sauvy in to denote a political parallel to the Third Estate (Tiers etat) of the French Revolution – Sauvy’s point was to underline the revolutionary potential that the new countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America would possess in relation to the existing bipolar world system. Sauvy and many of those theori sts who adopted the term envisaged a Third World that, like its illustrious predecessor in France, would rise against and overturn the established order(s). In terms of the Third World’s actual fate during the Cold War, Sauvy could not have been further from the truth. Instead of overturning the international system, many Third World countries became its main victims through the extension of Cold War tensions to their territories. Central America, Angola, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Indochina, Korea – the list of countries that have had their futures wrecked by superpower involvement is very long indeed, and many of these countries are still not beginning to come to terms with the consequences of their predicament. But equally damaging to the new states that were created in the aftermath of World War II was the willingness of Third Word elites hemselves to adopt Cold War ideologies for purposes of domestic development and mobilization. This wholesale takeover of aerial and divisive ideas by feeble states caused untold damage not only through warfare but also through social experiments inspired by both socialist and capitalist versions of high modernism. From rural resettlement programs in Indonesia and Thailand and strategic villages in . For in vigorating attempts at making such connections see Wolfgang Emmerich and Carl Wege, eds. , Der Technikdiskurs in der Hitler-Stalin Ara [The technology discourse in the Hitler-Stalin era] (Stuttgart, ; and David C. Engerman, â€Å"Modernization from the Other Shore: American Observers and the Costs of Soviet Economic Development,† American Historical Review (April ): –. . Alfred Sauvy, â€Å"Trois mondes, une planete† [Three worlds, one planet], l’Observateur, August . : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? South Vietnam, to collectivization in Ethiopia and ? ve-year plans in Mozambique and Angola, the social and human cost of the attempts by Third World elites to force change on unwilling societies has been frightful. In some cases, such as in South Vietnam or in Ethiopia, it makes sense to speak of a continuous war against a peasantry that had to be â€Å"transformed† – and fast – if the version of modernity that the regime had bought into should be able to overcome its rivals. The main signi? cance of the Cold War for the Third World (and of the Third World for the Cold War) seems to me to be this: That the ideological rivalry of the two superpowers came to dominate Third World politics to such an extent that in some countries it delegitimized the development of the domestic political discourse that any state needs for its survival. As a result, the elites in these countries increasingly isolated themselves from the peasant population and, in the end, sought a superpower ally in order to wage war on their own people. Guatemala after and Ethiopia after are good cases in point. Seen from a U. S. perspective during the Cold War, this was, of course, not quite the way things looked. The United States’s Third World allies were most often seen, by both supporters and critics of U. S. Cold War policies, as local powerholders who joined with the United States in order to ? ht communism and preserve their own privileges. They were â€Å"traditionalists† – a term that in the early s quickly made the leap from modernization theory textbooks to State Department dispatches. Few general descriptions could, in my opinion, be further from the truth. When we look at their actions and their beliefs, leaders such as Indonesia’s Suharto and the last Pahlavi shah in Iran were, in their way, revolutiona ries, who attempted to create completely new states based on authoritarian high modernist visions of social transformation. Like leaders in Western Europe, their main source of inspiration was the United States, but their societies were . Gary E. Hansen, ed. , Agricultural and Rural Development in Indonesia (Boulder, ); Walden F. Bello et al. , A Siamese Tragedy: Development and Disintegration in Modern Thailand (Oakland, CA, ); Arthur Combs, â€Å"Rural Economic Development as a Nation-Building Strategy in South Vietnam, – † (Ph. D. thesis, London School of Economics, ); Tesfaye Tafesse, The Agricultural, Environmental, and Social Impacts of the Villagization Programme in Northern Shewa, Ethiopia (Addis Ababa, ; Mark F. Chingono, The State, Violence, and Development: The Political Economy of War in Mozambique, – (Aldershot, ); Pierre Beaudet, ed. , Angola: bilan d’un socialisme de guerre [Angola: Accounts of a socialism of war] (Paris, ). . Jennifer G. Schirmer, The Guatemalan Military Project: A Violence Called Democracy (Philadelphia, ); Tefarra Haile-Selassie, The Ethiopian Revolution, – (London, ). . On the curious development of concepts for viewing Third World elites see Frederick Cooper and Randall Packer, eds. International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley, ); and Michael Edward Latham, â€Å"Modernization as Ideology: Social Science Theory, National Identity, and American Foreign Policy† (Ph. D. diss. , University of California, Los Angeles, ). The major analytical statements of modernization as an American project are Walt Whitman Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge, England, ); and Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, . For a historical critique see Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds. , The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, England, ); and, for a vigorous counterattack by an anthropologist, Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making of the Third World (Princeton, ) . Three (Possible) Paradigms : much further removed from that ideal in social, ideological, and technological terms. Just as Mao Zedong in the late s spoke about â€Å"catapulting† China into socialism, Suharto and the shah wanted to catapult their countries into advanced capitalism. Not surprisingly, since human societies cannot be formed into projectiles aimed at ideological images, none of them had much success. The civil wars in the Third World during the Cold War era therefore often began as clashes between a center that had adopted one form or the other of high modernist ideology and movements on the periphery that saw themselves as defending their values and customs. Like all wars, however, these con? icts transformed because of the levels of violence, uprooting, and destruction that they created. This transformation was often as much ideological as military or strategic. In many cases, these calamitous wars provided unique opportunities for revolutionary movements to recruit adherents to their beliefs, and thereby transform peasant communities into armies of rebellion. The Chinese Communist Party is a good case in point: In the ? rst phase of the Cold War, radical socialist movements in the Third World often began their march to power by defending local areas against imperialist armies, or â€Å"modernizing† states, or simply against encroachments by capitalist practices that, for the peasants, could be as destructive as warfare or forced labor. The second phase of the Cold War, beginning in the early s, saw an extension of this pattern. With decolonization, within two decades more than one hundred new states emerged, each with elites that had their own ideological agendas, often connected up to the ideals constituted by the superpowers. Instead of reducing tensions in society, decolonization – for the formerly colonized – often increased them, and gave rise to state administrations that were, for the peasants, more intrusive and more exploitative than the colonial authorities had been. As a result, most of the new states became chronically unstable in both political and social terms. Had it not been for the existence of these new states, it is likely that the Cold War con? ict, in its s and s form, would have petered out sometime in the s, with the stabilization of European borders and the Soviet post-Stalin â€Å"normalization. † What prolonged the con? ict was its extension into areas in which the Cold War ideological duality had no relevance for the majority of the people, but where U. S. and Soviet leaders convinced themselves that the postcolonial states were theirs to win or lose. Local Third World elites were therefore able to attain Great Power allies in their wars against their peoples, and the organizations opposing them could often forge their own foreign links, . Marvin Zonis, Majestic Failure: The Fall of the Shah (Chicago, ); Michael R. J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics under Suharto, ? d ed. (London, ). . Theda Skocpol, â€Å"Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization,† World Politics (January ): – ; Je? Goodwin and Skocpol, â€Å"Explaining Revolutions in the Contemporary Third World,† Politics and Society ( ): – Quee-Young Kim, ed. , Revolutions in the Third World (New York, ); and Barry M. Schutz and Robert O. Slater, Revolution and Political Change in the Third World (Boulder, ). : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? in some cases based on the most incongruous of ideological alliances, such as U. S. support for radical Islamist parties in Afghanistan. What changed from the early Cold War, however, was th e pattern of superpower involvement: During the s, it was as often the Soviet Union as the United States that found itself on the side of the government against the rebels. In this latter point I think there is an important clue to how we may be changing our understanding of the relationship between the Cold War and developments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. As seen from within many Third World societies, the United States was as much of a revolutionary force as was the Soviet Union – the two, and those who adopted elements of their ideologies, emphasized standardization, engineering, and planning; the orders that they wanted to establish were distinctly Western, with roots going back to the Enlightenment and the eighteenth century. I was struck by this recently when I attended a series of oral history conferences on the Vietnam wars with former Secretary of Defense Robert MacNamara as one of the main participants. As far as I could see, MacNamara and his former North Vietnamese enemies still lived in completely di? erent worlds as to their understanding of the war except when talking about the social changes that they had attempted to foist on Vietnamese society – MacNamara’s â€Å"villagization† was only a few steps away from the North’s collectivization in terms of its e? ects (unfortunately both intended and real). Like Mao Zedong – perhaps the most destructive utopian of the past century – both sides viewed the peasants as â€Å"blank slates, on which the most wonderful texts may be written. † Some of my colleagues will undoubtedly think that working within the alternative paradigms I claim to observe will broaden the study of the Cold War to a point where it becomes indistinguishable from a â€Å"global history† approach. If the Cold War was all these things, this thinking goes, then what in latetwentieth-century history is left outside the realm of Cold War history? Am I not reducing very complex and in part unrelated phenomena to that narrow area of history in which my own research interests began? In this article, I have tried to show how these new paradigms may stay clear of reductionist fallacies by constantly emphasizing the interactions between developments in the East-West political con? ict and other changes in human societies during the Cold War era. These interactions are what may help us to a wider understanding of the con? ct – which is not the same as saying that all events from Yalta to Malta can be explained by simple political references. Like the journalist Thomas Friedman, who has written one of the best books available about the post- international system, I believe that the â€Å"Cold War system didn’t shape everything, but it shaped many things. † The point is that without attempting to understand these wider connections, we run the risk of disregarding those aspects of the Cold War and of the processes of change that Three (Possible) Paradigms : ccompanied it that we are most likely to encounter as questions from future students or from the general public. If one, like me, hopes that in some way what I am doing as a historian may help people make more sense of the world they live in today, then it should be these wider connections that inspire our work. What is really reductionist, I think, are the attempts at making Cold War history into games centered on narrow concepts of â€Å"interest† – be it the realists’ strategic interests or the Marxists’ economic interests. Last year’s Bernath Lecture – and much of the debate that followed – may serve as a depressing example of the relative limitations of these approaches, and as prescriptions for how international history may remain peripheral within the wider profession. Global events after the end of the Cold War have already exposed the disregarding of cultural and ideological background to con? ict as dangerous folly. I believe that excluding the other key issues of change that I have pointed to above may turn out in the long run to be equally dangerous. Attempting to point out what we carry over from the Cold War and what turned out to be speci? c for the late twentieth century is one useful way of approaching contemporary international history. I have tried to distinguish dimensions that are important enough to contain both durable and speci? c elements and that therefore seem to become important avenues to our understanding of the Cold War system. Like anyone talking about the past and the future, I may, of course, turn out to be mostly wrong – there may be other new paradigms beside those I have described here that will dominate the ? ld in ten years’ time. What I am certain of, however, is that the remarkable ability that international historians have shown up to now to use new evidence to feed into old interpretations will not continue to dominate, and that in the future we will be looking at a much more diverse ? eld of approaches and interpretations than any of us thought possible before the Cold War ended. . Fr iedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York, ), ? ; for more critical views of the system that replaced the Cold War see Anthony Giddens, â€Å"The BBC Reith Lectures† at http://www. lse. ac. uk/Giddens/; and Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford, ). . Robert Buzzanco, â€Å"What Happened to the New Left? Toward a Radical Reading of American Foreign Relations,† Diplomatic History (Fall ): – , and the debate between Buzzanco and his critics on H-DIPLO discussion logs starting in October (http://www?. hnet. msu. edu/~diplo/). Interestingly, Buzzanco, in his footnotes, lists the works of only four non-American scholars – Marx, Lenin, Bukharin, and Geir Lundestad. ?. Another useful approach is the comparison with other periods and systems. See, for instance, Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Con? ict from to (London, ); and the critique in Torbjorn Knutsen, The Rise and Fall of World Orders (Manchester, ). See also B. Teschke, â€Å"Geopolitical Relations in the European Middle Ages: History and Theory,† International Organization , no. ? ( ): –.

Suspense Essay Example For Students

Suspense Essay In the extract from A Pair Of Blue Eyes, Thomas Hardy has created suspense, a state or condition of mental uncertainty or excitement1, as an effective method of telling the story. It shows us a character Knight, and the trouble he faces. It is split up into three paragraphs which each play their own part in telling the story with a 3rd person narration. In the first second paragraph the reader is introduced to the problem facing the character Knight. In the third paragraph the reader is given an insight into the thoughts of Knight. The author creates this suspense in this extract with the use of paragraph structure, imagery of the setting and third person narration. We will write a custom essay on Suspense specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The paragraph structure of this extract is one of the key elements the author has used to create suspense. Thomas Hardy has created this suspense by firstly starting the first paragraph with At first, when death appeared improbable because it had never visited him before.. Here the reader knows very little about the situation facing Knight and are left asking questions but also wanting to know more, such as who the character Knight is, why he is in a battle with nature and how dangerous the situation might be for him. In the second paragraph the author is feeding the reader images of the surroundings, which helps with further understanding into Knights situation. Here Hardy is careful to give only a detailed image of what Knight can see as well as his feelings, which then makes it apparent to the reader that he is dangling off of a cliff edge, which keeps the suspense high as the reader wants to find out how this has happened and what the future holds for Knight. The third paragraph allows the reader to relate to the character in his feelings, but does not give an indication of Knights fate further holding up the suspense. Hardy is not only able to maintain the suspense, but also build it up throughout the extract in the way he has given the reader a description of the setting through images of the ongoing situation. the cliff formed the inner face of the segment of a hollow cylinder, having the sky for a top and the sea for a bottomHe looked far down the faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ade, and realized more thoroughly how it threatened him. This passage provides the reader with an almost overwhelming image of the cliff being enormously large and hostile and as a result making Knight seem small and insignificant in his battle against nature, as he is a very small piece of an extremely large puzzle. Grimness was in every feature, and to its very bowels the inimical shape was desolation. The image of the cliff is further described as being hostile and overwhelming, as well as unpleasant to Knight as he hangs on for his life, which only adds to the suspense. The authors choice of 3rd person narration provides the reader with a broader insight into the situation Knight faces and also into how he feels. An example of this insight is in the first paragraph. There is not only suspense created here but also the idea that Knight is suspended in time too: Knight could think of no future, nor anything connected with his past. This along with the imagery of him being in the center on the cliff allows you to see that for Knight, time has stopped right in the center. In this time when he is dangling from a cliff he comes across a creature with eyes, a fossil called Trilobites. Separated by millions of years in their lives, Knight and this underling seemed to have met in their place of death. This meeting with the fossil creates further suspense as the reader begins to see that death is inevitable for Knight, even though his fate has not yet been told. It is here you are left wondering if Knight will in fact join the fossilized animal in death. .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c , .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .postImageUrl , .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c , .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c:hover , .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c:visited , .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c:active { border:0!important; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c:active , .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7077a8840b51a587d0f7719cd6f3d42c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: A ciascuno il suo EssayThe use of structure on its own would have been enough to provide an amount of suspense in this extract from A Pair of Blue Eyes. But with the additional use of Imagery to let the reader paint a mental picture of the setting, third person narration allowing a further understanding of the setting and inevitability of the character. I believe that Thomas Hardy has effectively created continually growing suspense in this extract as you read through it from start to finish.